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发表论文 常用时态、句型和表达方法1

日期:2009年12月24日   来源:来自网络   热度:
常用时态、句型和表达方法(一)论文各种情况时态的使用1.表示论文报道、介绍、综述、推荐等动词的时态 通常用一般现在时。例如:(1)本文讨论了手术并发症及其预防方法。In this paper operative complication and methods of preventing it arediscussed. (2..
 

 如何发表论文?如何做到论文发表既能正常引用又不抄袭呢?如何选择论文发表网代发论文?
 常用时态、句型和表达方法
 (一)论文各种情况时态的使用
 1.表示论文“报道”、“介绍”、“综述”、“推荐”等动词的时态  通常用一般现在时。例如:
 (1)本文讨论了手术并发症及其预防方法。
 In this paper operative complication and methods of preventing it arediscussed.
   (2)本文是对我科确诊的20例矽肺结核所作的简要总结。
   This paper is a brief summary based on 20 cases of silicotuberculosisdocumented in our department.
   2.表示其他文献或别的作者“报道”、“讨论”、“综述”
   要用一般过去时或现在完成时。例如:
   (1)就我们所知,细胞白血病的这一并发症迄今未见有报道。
   To our knowledge’this complication has not yet been reported inplasma cell leukemia.
   (2)对自愿人员进行传染性肝炎的研究,在1968年就有过报道。
   In 1968,studies of infections hepatitis in volunteers were reported.
   3.表示研究过程中动作或状态的动词的时态
   通常用一般过去时态,但有时为了强调某一行为或状态业已完成或持续到撰写论文时,也可用现在完成时。例如:
   (1)我们对65例早期胃癌治疗效果进行了分析。
   The results of treatment of early gastric carcinoma were analyzed in6 5 patients.
   (2)我们检查了5例死于呼吸窘迫症的成人患者的肺脏。The authors have examined the lunthe adult respiratory distress syndrome.2.表示研究“目的”的动词的时态3.研究“目的 ”是在着手研究时确定的,按英美人的写作习惯,研究目的一般 都用过去时表达。例如:(1)本研究旨在观察循经犬儒能否建立条件反射。
      The objective of this study was to observe the possibility of elabora-    qting a conditioned reflex on the basis of propagated sensation along chan-nels.
   (2)本研究旨在对因急性心肌梗塞住院的患者在出院前进行踏旋器运动试验的安全性与效用作出评价。
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the safety and utility oftreadmill exercise testing prior tO the discharge of patients admitted withacute myocardial infarction.
   (3)本研究旨在评定高选择性迷走神经切断术后的.临床效果。
   The aim of this study was to assess the clinical results after highlyselective agotomy. 5.表示”结论”的动词的时态表示作者本人的观点、意见以及对所进行的研究的总结等,通常用一般现在时。如用一般过去时,则表示这一结论仅仅适用于该研究过程中的特定情况,不具有普遍性。例如:
   ()我们的结论是:这种试验制度的原则可以提高医院药物管理的安全性与精确性。 We conclude that the principles of the tsafety and accuracy in hospital drug handling.(2)结果表明,对某病例可采用这一简单安全的手术。It is suggested that this simple and safe surgical procedure is justified in selected cases.总之,一般结论,数、理、化方面已成立的原理等都应用一般现在时
 6.表示“图表”的时态
 图表和结论相似,都用一般现在时。例如:
 简图显示在图3,表2第二栏代表……    Diagrams showing yields are shown in Figure 3.The second columnof Table 2 represents…
   7.表示一般真理的时态
   从逻辑上说,一个一般真理是没有时间上的区别的,因此一般真理都用一般现在时。例如:
   很多年以前科学家们认识到疟疾是由一种病菌引起的,某类蚊子带有这种病菌。
   Many years ago,scientists were convinced that malaria is caused bya germ carried by a certain species of mosquito.
   8.表示计划与预期的结果的时态
   计划要做的工作是目前尚没有进行的,预期的结果是目前还没有得到的,因此都要用将来时态。例如:
   (1)当这个药物能大规模人工合成时,我们将能够建立工厂来进行大量生产。
   When the medication can be synthesized artificially on a large scale’we shall be able to set up factories tO produce it,
   (2)今后,科学家将要致力于收集……
   In the coming years,scientists will try tO collect…(二)常用句型和表达方法1.回顾某领域业已取得的研究结果或介绍相关知识
   此类表达常用的动词有present,summarize,review,outline等,用于资料性摘要的第一部分、文献回顾或背景介绍。例如:
   (1)这篇论文概述了处理……的方法。
   This paper reviews the method for dealing with…
   (2)本文综述了关于….”的理论。
   This article summarizes the theory on…(6)我们调查的主要目的是获得…的一知识。The main objective of our investigation has been to obtain some knowledge of…(7)通过近期的研究,作者旨在总结出……的基本结构。Based on recent research,the author intends to outline the frane-work of…
   (8)作者正进行一实验性研究以建立…The authors are now initiating some experimental investigations to estalish…3.陈述论文的论点和作者观点在表达论文和作者的观点时,常用的词语包括argue,account for,address,characterize,concern,xontribute,describe,disclose,deal with,devote to,explain,introduce,present,report等。例如:(1)本文专门阐述…
   This paper is mainly devoted to…
   (2)我们着重阐述……新方法的评价。
   We concern the assessments of the new method for…
   (3)本文第一次论述了……
   This paper deals with…for the first time.
   4.介绍研究过程和研究范围
   在描述研究过程时,常用的词语有analyze,consider,discuss,ex—amine,study,investigate,state,propose等;介绍研究范围的常用词有contain’cover,include,outline或用名词scope,field,domain等。例如:
   (1)文中研究了……的特性。
   Thc characteristic of…was investigated.
   (2)本文分析了……的可能性。
   了he paper analyzes the possibility of…
   (3)本文讨论了计算……的方法。
   丁his article discusses the method of calculation of…
   (4)本文提出了建立……的原则。
   The principle of constructing…is proposed.
   (5)本文阐明了……的原因。
   了his paper states the reasons for…
   (6)此项研究确定了……的程序。
   The study identifies some procedures for…
   (7)本文概述了……的基本过程。
   This article outlines the preliminary process of…
   (8)本研究的范围覆盖了……
   The scope of study covers…
   (9)我们的研究包括了……
   Our study includes…
   (10)本文包含了关于……的专门课题。The paper contains the specific topics on…
   5.阐明论证
   在论文进行论证的部分常用confirm,demonstrate,find,identify,indicate,monitor,note,observe’point out’prove,provide等词语。例如:
   (1)结果为……提供了可靠的依据。
   The result provides a sound basis for…
   (2)观察并监测了冷冻疗法对肿瘤的效应。
   The effects of cryosurgery on tumors were observed and monitore.
   6.说明试验过程 
   描述试验时,可以用experiment,test,sample的动词形式或名词形式;名词可与carry out,make等搭配使用。例如:
   (1)我们对……进行了血、尿采样。
   We sampled the blood and urine of…
   (2)对……进行了艾滋病抗体的血液甄别试验。
   The blood screening test for th AIDS antibody has been carried ou!on…
   (3)我们对……冷冻的特性进行了试验。
   We experimented on the cryosurgery property of…
   7.展示研究结果
   介绍研究结果可以使用动词result,cause,increase,lessen等,词组as a result,arrive at等;或使用这些动词相应的名词。作者应根据自己的研究结果选择适当的词语准确地向读者作出报道。因此,此类表达没有特定的词句。例如:
   (1)观察结果显示…… 
   Thc results of observation show that…
   (2)……之间的关系表现为…… 
   Thc rclati。nship betwccn…is characterized by…
   8.介绍结论
   描述结论的常用词语有conclude,conclusion,summary,tO sumup,lead to,in conclusion等以及句型It is concluded that…。(1)我们根据试验得出的结论是……We concluded by experiment that….(2)本文的结论是……It is concluded that…(3)我们的研究结论是……The conclusion of our research is…(4)在……的基础上,可作出如下的结论。On the basis of…,the following conclusions can be drawn…(5)最后,结论是……Finally,a summary is given of…(6)总结起来,我们揭示了……To sum up,we have revealed…(7)我们的论证得出的是……Our argument proceeds in…(8)这项研究工作发现了……The research has led tO the discovery of…第十章译文错误分析和常用英译技巧
   医学论文和摘要的英语翻译,出现的问题有其规律性,如不少作者对英语医学论文和摘要的文体、结构和要求缺乏基本的了解。例如:什么是结构式摘要与非结构式摘要7半结构式摘要的四个要素是什么?再如译者对英语医学论文和摘要的句子结构和用词特点缺乏基本知识,相当一部分作者是依赖“汉英字典”在作字面翻译。例如:相当一部分作者把“对照组”‘control group)译成contrast group,把“疾病的发生与发展”‘the development and progression of a disease)译成the appear-ance and development of a disease,至于“病人”‘a patient)与“病例”(acase)不分,“结果”‘results)与“结局”‘outcomes)不分,分不清effect,ef-fectiveness,efficacy,efficiency和affect之间的区别,则是一个普遍的现象。相当一部分外投稿子也因结构和文字上的问题被外刊拒收。这里,我们就医学论文和摘要的英语翻译中出现的问题进行总结,并介绍一些常用的翻译技巧第一节  医学论文英译常见错误分析
   医学学术论文写作所使用的语体为书面语,要求结构严谨,逻辑性强。如果用词不当或出现不少语法错误,则会大大影响论文质量。以下分析一些常见的语法和文体错误,供读者借鉴。
   1.逗号叠加
   如果用逗号连接两个相互独立的完整句子,那么就犯了“逗号叠加”的语法错误。
   例l:每天用射线束照射几分钟,共需2~6周之久。应检测暴露区域的正常组织和血液,以保证照射仅限于肿瘤细胞。
 [初稿]7he beam of radiation is administered for a few minutes aday for 2 tO 6 weeks,normal tissues lying in the exposed area andblood arc monitored tO ensure that irradiation is limited tO the.tumorcells.
 [修稿]丁he beam of radiation is administered for a few minutes adav f。r 2 t。6 weeks .Normal tissues lying in the exposed area andblood are monitored tO ensure that irradiation is limited tO the tumorcells.
   例2:X射线以可见光同样的方式使照片的底片感光。因此,将X射线穿过机体的某一部分到达照片的底片上就能形成射线照片。
   [初稿]Photographic film is affected by X-rays in the same way as itis by visible light ,thus0 a radiograph can be formed by passing the X-rays through a body part onto photographic film.
   [修稿]Photographic film is affected by X-rays in the same way as itis by visible light!.Thusa radiograph can be formed by passing the X-rays through a body part onto photographic film.
   注意事项:
   (1)如果有两个相互独立的完整句子,每个句子后用句号结束。
   (2)如果这两个完整句子之间有一定的关系,可用分号“;”将这两句隔开。分号含义很多,它可表示原因、条件、时间等。
   (3)如果这两个完整句子之间有一定的关系,也可用表示这两个句子关系的连词(如for,if,because,as,etc.)连接。apparently.
 [修稿]Natural infection apparently produces lifelong immunity.
 例2:许多人得了风疹而自己却不知道,因为并非总出皮疹。
 [初稿]Many people may have had German Measles without know-ing it,as a skin rash is not been always presented.
   [修稿]Many people may have had German Measles without know-ing it’as a skin rash is not always present.
   4指代含糊
   科技学术论文必须清晰、简明,不能模棱两可。特别在使用代词或修饰词时,要考虑到这些代词是否明确指代前面出现的名词。
   例1:如果幻觉发生在入睡时称为人睡前幻觉,如果发生在醒来时称醒前幻觉。
   [初稿]If experienced while falling asleep,this are called hypnagog-ic and if experienced during awakening this are called hypnopompic.    [修稿]If experienced while falling asleep,they are called hypna-gogic and if experienced during awakening they are called hypnopompic.
   例2:虽然告诉了他检查结果排除了重大躯体疾病,但是他仍然表示出比确诊还要失望。
   [初稿]Although he was told that the results of the examinationswere negative for significant physical disease,they appear disappointedrather than relieved at the findings.
   [修稿]Although he was told that the results of the examinationswere negative for significant physical-disease.he appears disappointedrather than relieved at the findings.
   5.累赘多余
   应该简练的地方,就不要添加多余的词语。
   例l:我写这份报告的目的是提出一些修改建议以便改进医药箱的性能.
   [初稿]It is my purpose in this report tO present and j ustify themodifications that I recommend in order to increase the performance of
   2。文体紊乱
   在一篇文章中,句子的长短也很讲究的。如果每句话都是短句,读者读起来会觉得如同嚼蜡一样乏味。因此要特别注意句子的長短搭配.
   例1:计算机控制轴向X线断层摄影术(CA7或C了),该技术是通过计算机与X线系统的结合取得的。[初稿]It is computerized axial tomography‘CAT or CT).Thathas been achieved through the merger of computers and X-ray systems.:,‘  [修稿]It is computerized axial tomography(CAT or CT),whichhas been achieved through the merger of computers and X-ray systems。
   例2:最新的放射学显像模式是NMR或最好说MRI(磁共振显像),这种模式犹如CT X线机一样,利用计算机构建机体的高对比度二维体层摄影的图像。
 [初稿]The latest radiologic imaging modality is NMR。or preferS-bly,MRI(magnetic resonance imaging),like CT X-ray machines’usescomputers to construct high-contrast,tWO-dimensional tomographic ima-ges of the body.
 [修稿]了he latest radiologic imaging modality is NMR,or prefera-bly,MRI(magnetic resonance imaging) which,like CT X-ray machines,uses computers tO construct high-contrast,tWO—dimensional to-mographic images of the body。
   3.滥用被动语态 
   被动语态常用于科技英语写作中,但并不意味着任何场合都可以  使用被动语态。如果被动语态用得太滥,文章就会失去它的活力,成了  八股式的文章。据统计,在一篇好的科技文章中,被动语态不超过四分  之一。
   例l:自然感染能产生终生免疫。
   [初稿]Lifelong immunity was been produced by natural infectionthe medicine cabinet.
   [修稿]My purpose in this report is to recommend certain modifica-tions for improving the performance of the medicine cabinet.
   例2:目前还没有一项研究能系统地解答更为基本的问题。
   [初稿]Now no study has systematically attempted to answer the;more fundamental questions.
   [修稿]No study has systematically attempted to answer the morefundamental questions.例3:年龄范围18~60岁。[初稿]Ages ranged from 18 to 60 years of age.[修稿]Ages ranged from 18 to 60.6.不并行描述几个方法、结果、现象常用并列结构,往往处理不好。例1:本法是用于调和气血,用于促进局部血液循环,用于消除肌肉疲劳和缓解痉挛的。
   [初稿]了hey are used as to regulate and harmonize qi and blood,topromote the local blood circulation,that they should relieve the muscularfatigue and to relax contracture.
   [修稿]They are used as to regulate and harmonize qi and blood,topromote the local blood circulation’to relieve the muscular fatigue and to.relax contracture.
   例2:气功分为静功和动功两大类,而无论哪一类气功都离不开调身、调息和调心这三个方面。
 [初稿]No matter what kinds of Qigong skills they are,none ofthem can be independent of the three aspects:to regulate the body’t01regulate the respiration and that they should regulate the heart.
 [修稿]No matter what kinds of Qigong skills they are,none ofthem can be independent of the three aspects:to regulate the body’toiregulate the respiration and to regulate the heart.
   7.连词使用不当
   例1:疖子令人感到疼痛,耳朵肿胀,感染可能会累及中耳。
   [初稿]Boils are painful’the ear may swell,here the infection mavspread to the middle ear.
 [修稿]Boils are painful,the ear may swell,and the infection mayspread to the middle ear.
   例2:群众心齐了,防治非典就好办了。
   [初稿]了he masses are of one heart’the treatment of Severe AcuteRespiratory Syndrome(SARS)become easy.
 [修稿]When the masses are of one heart’the treatment of SevereAcute Respiratory Syndrome(SARS)become easy.
 8.中式英语
 例1:肝宝冲剂抗乙型肝炎肝纤维化的研究
 [初稿]Studies on Gan Bao Chong ji Antagonising Hepatic Fibrosisin the Patient of Hepatitis B
 [修稿]Gan Bao Chong ji Antagonising Hepatic Fibrosis in the Pa—tient of Hepatitis B 
   例2:中研2号治疗艾滋病病毒感染及艾滋病患者29例临床观察
   [初稿]Observation on 29 Cases of HIV Infection and AIDS 7reatedwith Zhong Yan No.2
 [修稿]29 Cases of HIV Infection and AIDS Treated with ZhongYan No  2
 9.缺句子成分  例1:如何弄清一对夫妇不能生育的原因?
 [初稿]How can find out the reason why sterility occurs in a COU-pie?
 [修稿]How can we find out the reason why sterility occurs in acouple?
   例2:请详细阐述一下癫痫大发作可以吗?
   [初稿]Please give a more detailed description of the grand mal sei-zures?
 [修稿]Will you please give a more detailed description of the grandmal seizures?
   例3:关节炎是关节的炎症吗?
   [初稿]Arthritis is just the inflammation of a joint,or not?
   [修稿]J wonder if arthritis is just the inflammation of a joint.
   10.修饰状语位置错误
   英语中表示程度的状语在修饰状语时,可前置也可后置,而在汉语中一般都前置。
   例1:这三者与诊断都没有太大关系。(前置)
   [初稿]None of the three is the relationship enough strong tO beregarded as diagnostic.
   [修稿]None of the three is the relationship strong enough tO beregarded as diagnostic.(后置)
   例2:病人不知道该病对于他意味着什么,但病情却发展很快。(前置)
   [初稿]7he patient doesn't know what the disease means to him,but the state of an illness is rapidly developing.
   [修稿]了he patient doesn't know what the disease means tO him,but the state of an illness is developing rapidly.(后置)
   11.时态错误
   例l:这篇文章报告两例艾滋病。
   [初稿]7his paper reported two cases of AIDS.
   [修稿]This paper reports two cases of AIDS.
   宜改为一般现在时态。
   例2:血管紧张肽通过直接的办法确定。
   [初稿]Hypertensin is determined by an indirect method.
   [修稿]Hypertensin was determined by an indirect method.
   宜改为一般过去时态,描述实验过程。
   12.单复数错误
   例1:有些用药物无法控制发作的幼儿,PETT(t电子发射轴向断层扫描,一种新的诊断人体,尤其是大脑的动态成像技术)的观察表明,仅一侧大脑显示有与癫痫相关的现象。
   [初稿]  In  some  young  children with  seiZurcS  unControllable  bvdrugs,PETT(Position Emission Transaxial Tomography--a new ima-ging technique for diagnosing the workings of the body,especiallv thcbrain)scans revealed that only half of the brain mere exhibiting cpilepsy-related phenomena.
   [修稿]  In some  young children with  seiZures  unC0ntrollable  bvdrugs,PETT(Position Emission Transaxial Tomography--a new ima-ging technique for diagnosing the workings of the body,cspccially thcbrain)scans revealed that only half of the brain was exhibiting cpilepsy-related phenomena.
   例2:已经知NNN~N丁型肝炎病毒很多年,但直到1988年才将它们分离出来。
   [初稿]The HCV and.HDV was known for many years,  but notisolated until l 988.
   [修稿]The HCV and HDV were known for many yca. but notisolated until 1 988.
   13.英语习惯用法的错误
   例1:据说,特发性高血压是由于遗传和环境因素形成的。
   [初稿]It is believed environmental as well as genetiC factors are re-sponsible for the development of essential hypertension.
   [修稿]It is believed that environmental as well as genctic{actorsare responsible for the development of essential hypertension.
   例2:必须指出,90%以上的高血压患者,其潜在病因难以确定。
   [初稿]It must be pointed out an underlying Cause Cannot be identi-1led In more than 90 percent of patients with hypertension.
   [修稿]It must be pointed out thot an underIying Cause cannot be    例2:病人们可能坚信自己正在遭受迫害,但既不表现恐惧又不恼怒。
   [初稿]Patients may be convinced that they suffer a stakeout butshow neither fear nor anger.
   [修稿]Patients may be convinced that they are being persecut dbut show neither fear nor anger.
   有些英语被动式句子中的动词,可以译成“受(遭)到……+名词”,“予(加)以+名词”这类结构。
   医学论文英译常见错误还有很多,只有通过不断的医学翻译实践来总结经验,利用翻译理论知识和规律来指导,才能掌握翻译理论知识以及基本规律,往返循环,周而复始,逐渐积累有关知识和经验,逐渐提高翻译能力和熟练技巧。
   翻译技巧的提高离不开翻译实践。有人对翻译理论很感兴趣,但不重视提高自己的英、汉语言水平。有人则认为只要英、汉语言基础好,不学习翻译理论,也同样会翻译。这两种观点都是不正确的。把翻译理论、方法和技巧的作用过分夸大,以为懂了理论就可以翻译好,这种想法是错误的。如果对原文不能理解,是不可能翻译正确的。对译文语言不精通,译文就不可能通顺。因此,翻译理论的提高也需要扎实的外语和本民族的语言基础。翻译是专家的工作,这话一点不错。
   古今中外的翻译家的翻译活动都是有一定的理论作指导的自觉劳动,他们一方面学习前人的翻译理论,一方面在自己的实践中不断总结经验,丰富理论,并用以指导实践。可以说,翻译是一门艺术,是一种创浩性劳动。第二节  词类转译法
   在英译过程中,有些句子可以逐词对译,有些句子则由于英汉两种语言的表达方式不同,不能用“一个萝卜一个坑’’的方法来逐词对译。identiffed in more than 90 percent of patients with hypertension.
   14.句子开头不宜使用阿拉伯数字
   临床表现为单纯高颅压型占27例(29.67%)。
   [初稿]27 cases(29.67%)had a clinical patent of isolated intracra-nial hypertension.
 [修稿]/wenty-seven cases(29.67%)had a clinical patent of isola.ted intracranial hypertension.15.名词使用不当例1:大多数病例双侧腺体受累。[初稿]Both glands are affected in most patients.[修稿]Both glands are affected in most cases.例2:常用计算机确定治疗特定肿瘤每日所需的剂量。[初稿]Computers are often used tO determine the every-tlme dos-age necessary lor treatment oI specmc tumors.
 [修稿]Computers are often used tO determine the every-time dosesnecessary for treatment of specific tumors.
   dosage指一个时期的总剂量,doses指一次的总剂量。
   16.没有转译成相应的英语词类
   在汉语中往往有一些名词英译时转译成英语的名词派生的动词。
   例1:与急性综合症的“阳性’’症状成对比的是,慢性综合症以思维障碍及活动减少、缺乏驱力、社会退缩和情感平淡等“阴性”症状为特点。
   [初稿]In contrast tO the“positive”symptoms of the acute syn-drome’thc chronic syndrome is<CI peculiarity on thought disorder and by“negative”symptoms of under activity,lack of drive,social withdrawal,and emotional apathy.
   [修稿]In contrast tO the“positive”symptoms of the acute syn-drome,the chronic sVndrome is characterized by thought disorder and by“negative”symptoms of under activity,lack of drive,social withdrawab,and Cmotional aDathV.原文中有些词在译文中需要转换词类,才能使汉语译文通顺自然。汉译英时词类转译的情况归纳起来有几种,现分述如下。
   1.动词转换成非谓语动词结构(分词或不定式等状语)
   汉语中动词的使用频率远远高于英语,在英语简单句中谓语动词通常只有一个,而且非常明显,而在汉语中可以在同一句子中出现几个动词,或者出现动词性结构连用现象。对于这样的句子,应该选择主要谓语动词,并将其他成分转译成现在分词、过去分词结构、动词不等式、介词短语等等。如:
   (1)我院是一所专业医疗机构,由近150名肿瘤专家组成,致力于肿瘤的治疗与研究工作。
 Our hospital is a professional medical institution,composed of near-1V 1 50  CanCer experts to the treatment and research of cancer.
   (2)护士边说边弯腰拿起药递给这个病人。
   With these words,the nurse stooped tO pick up the drug for thc pa-tient.
   2.动词转换成名词 
   汉语中动词用得较多,除大量的动宾结构外,还有连动式、兼语式等两个以上动词连用的现象。而英语则不然,一句话往往只用一个谓语动词,而且英语的名词也比汉语的名词用得多。由于两种语言各自所具有的这种特点,汉译英时常常需要把汉语动词转换成英语名词.有时,随着汉语动词的这种转换,修饰该动词的副词也自然需要转换.
   (1)学习眼科很艰苦,成为一名优秀的眼科专家需要很长时间。 
   The study of ophthalmology is very hard,and it takes a long time tObecome an excellent eye specialist.
   (2)绝对不能违反这个原则。
   No violation of this principle can be tolerated.
   (3)主任医师在讲话中强调要为非典病人努力212作。
   In his speech the chief physician laid special stress on hard work forSARS Dicnts.
   (4)这个副主任医师坚持取消旧的规定,建立新的规章制度。
   了he associate chief physician insisted on the abolishment of the oldrules and the establishment of new regulations.
   以上例句中的汉语动词“学习”、“违反”、“强调”、“取消”、“建立”被  分别转译成了英语名词study,violation,stress,abolishmcnt,estab-  lishment。
   3.动词转换成形容词
   汉语中一表示知觉、情感等心理状态的动词,往往可以转换成英语形容词,通常多以“be十形容词……”结构来表达。如:
   (1)这位直肠病专家绝不满足于现有的成就。
   了he proctologist is not content with our present achievemcnts.
   (2)听说许多人中暑,医学工作者们极为关切。
   Doctors are deeply concerned at the news that many people sufferheatstroke.
   (3)他们怀疑他是否能负担得起。
   They are doubt ful whether he can afford it.
   (4)你可晓得还有什么可引起湿疹?
   Are you aware of what else may cause eczema?
   (5)我为她的健康担忧。
   I am anxious about her health.
   4.动词转换成介词或介词词组
   与汉语相比,英语用介词较多,而且有一些英语介词本是由动词演变而来的,具有动词的特征。因此在汉译英时,汉语的一些动词常常可用英语的介词或介词词组来翻译。如:
   (1)我们对待中国传统医学的态度是:第一,不敌视;第二,继承和发扬。
   Our attitude to traditional Chinese medicine is:first,we are nOtagainst it;second,we succeed and develop it。
   (2)这些医学教授们不顾一切困难和挫折,坚持向科学化、规范化、定量化的方向努力。
 The medical professors kept on fighting in spite of all difficultiesand SetbaCks for directions of scientificity,  StandardiZation and quantifi-cation.
   5.形容词或副词转换成名词
   在汉译英吋,有时出于语法结构和修辞上的需要,也可以把汉语的一些形容词或副词转译成英语的名词。例如:
   (1)将肿瘤归类为良性和恶性加以区分开是十分必要的。
   The classification of neoplasms as either benign or malignant is of avital necessity.
   (2)这个疗法应该是针在先,灸在后。
   The therapy should be the first to apply the needles and the last toignite the moxa wool.
   (3)针灸不是随便可以学好的,非下苦工夫不可。
   了he mastery of acupuncture and moxibustion is not easy and re-quires painstaking effort.
   (4)Paul U.Unschuld教授平易近人,热爱中国传统医学。
   Prof.Paul U.Unschuld is a man of easy access and a strong longfor traditional Chinese medicine.
   (5)这个医学工作者觉得治疗这个病并不难。
   The doctor felt no difficulty in treating the sickness.
   (6)他毫不费力地适应了医院的快节奏生活。
   He had no difficulty in adapting tO the fast tempo of the hospitallife.
   6.名词转换成动词
   在汉译英中,比较普遍的现象是汉语的动词转换成为英语的名词。但也有相反情况,即汉语的名词转换为英语的动词。与此同时,原来修饰该名词的形容词也常随之而转换成英语的副词,作为状语来修饰由汉语名词转换成的英语动词。例如:
   (1)(保健功)其特点是操作简便,容易掌握,经常锻炼有促进气血流畅,灵活关节,强健筋骨等作用。
   Characterized by convenient operation and easy maStery’  the he-  quent practlce functions to promote the smooth circulation of qi and  blood,lubricate the joints and strengthen the tendons and bones.
   (2)这一平衡状态遭到破坏,即形成肾的阴阳失调的病理变化。
   If this balance is disturbed,there will be the pathological changes of  disharmony between yin and yang of the kidney.

   (3)三焦的形状像一个大桶,分为上、中、下三个不同部位。
   The sanj iao(triple energizer)is shaped like a big pail and divided  into the upper,middle and low portions.
   以上译例中的“特点”、“破坏”、“形状”这些概念,在汉语中只能用  名词来表达,然而在英语中则常常可用动词来表达。
   7.动词转换成副词
   (1)医院院长让专家们进来,而让其他人出去。
   The hospital superintendent let the experts in and 0thCrs out.
   (2)会议结束后,人人都尽力为医院做点事。
   The meeting over,everyone tried to do something for the hospital.
   (3)医务主任想知道今晚上为病人演什么。
   The medical director wondered what is on tonight for patients.
   8.名词转换成代词
   (1)现在人们已经意识到,遗传学和医学的大多数分支都有着十分  重要的联系,要想更好地掌握医学,遗传学知识是必不可少的。
   Nowadays’  people have realized that genetics has a very basic rela-  tionship with the branches of medicine and its knowlcdRc is indispensablc  for a deeper grasp of the subject.
   (2)许多医疗器械都是中国制造的,这些医疗器械性能可靠,操作  方便。
   A lot of medical instruments are made in China.which are reliable    in performance and easy in opCration.第三节  被动语态的译法
   所谓语态变换,是指翻译中汉英两种语言之间的主动式与被动式的互换。在汉语中被动式使用较少,我们叙述一种行为的时候,常用主动式。英语则不然,大量的及物动词可以用被动式,不少相当于及物动词的短语也可以用被动式。英语中使用被动式的情况比汉语多。例如:
   (1)在美国最早诊断艾滋病到现在有多久了?
   HOw lonlg has the AIDS first been diagnosed in the United States?
   (2)关于科学化、规范化、定量化,已经说得很多了。
   Much has been said about scientificity’standardization and quantifi-cation.
   (3)用氯霉素或氨苄青霉素治疗伤寒病。死亡率已经从30%降到2%。
   TYPhoid{ever is treated with chloramphenicol or ampicillin.Themortality rate has been reduced from 30%tO 2%.
   由此可见,汉语中的哪些句式可以用或者必须用英语被动式来表达是研究语态变换的主要问题。
   当然,英语中被动语态的各种用法都有一定的理由.归纳起来,不外乎是:着重被动的动作;突出动作承受者(人或事物)的重要性;不知道或无须说出动作的执行者;便利上下文的连贯、衔接。这些理由也正是我们在汉译英时进行语态变换的重要依据。
   (一)关于汉语被动句的英译问题
   汉语的被动句子,从结构上来说,大体可分为两类:一类带有表达被动意义的标记;另一类则不带这种标记。普通而常见的是后一类。不论属于哪一类,英译时基本上仍可运用被动语态,下面分别介绍。
   1.带有被动标记的汉语被动句
   这类句子一般表示较强的被动意义,着重于被动的动作。此类句子可按照英语的惯常用法,相应地译成英语的被动句。汉语这一类被动式,用助词“被”、“受”、“遭”、“给”、“挨”、“叫”、“让”等为标记。例如:
   (1)这种观点被广泛地运用于古代的自然科学,如天文、历算、农业、医学,以解释自然界的各种现象。
   This viewpoint was extensively utilized in the ancient natural sci-ences,such as astronomy,calendrical science,agriculture and medicine.tO explain all the phenomena of the nature.
   (2)针灸深受海外患者欢迎。
   Acupuncture and moxibustion is greatly respected by overseas pa-tients.
   (3)这一平衡状态遭到破坏,即形成肾的阴阳失调的病理变化。
   If this balance is disturbed,there will be the pathological changes ofdisharmony between yin and yang of the kidney.
   (4)脓甚至能到达脑膜,引起脑膜炎,并可造成死亡。这一部位的感染叫做乳突炎。
   Pus may even reach the membranes that cover the brain,causingmeningitis and possible death.That is called mastoiditis.
   有些被动句用“由……所”、“被……所”,后加谓语动词来表达被动意义。例如:
   (5)由异物搔痒所造成皮肤破损常常继发感染。
   An infection often occurs through a break in the skin caused byusing foreign objects to relieve itching.
   还有些被动句是用“加以”、“予以”等词后加谓语动词来表达被动意义的。例如:
   (6)该计划将由一个特别委员会加以审查。
   7he plan will be examined by a special committee.
   (7)这个问题必须在适当的时候以适当的方式予以处理。
   The problem must be dealt with by appropriate means at an appro-priate time.
   (8)除了治疗的部位外,应对患者仔细加以防护,将治疗部位保持暴露(在射线下)。
   The patient ij carefully shielded except for the site of the therapy,which remains exposed.
   但是,还必须指出,并不是所有带被动标记的句子都一定要译成英语的被动式,有时也有例外。必须首先考虑所选的英语动词的特点、习惯用法以及上下文关系等,然后再决定用什么语态。又如下面一句译文中的被动式就没有按原结构翻译,而是改译成英语主动式,这样’上下文联系得更为紧密,并避免了头重脚轻的毛病。如:
   掌握方剂的服用方法,对于充分发挥药效有着重要作用,应当予以重视。
   Decoction of herbal ingredients will play an important role in impro—ving the therapeutic effect,and it is necessary tO pay more attention tothem.
   2.不带被动标记的汉语被动句
   这类句子在形式上一般都有主语,也有动词,但是主语实际上是谓语动词的动作承受者,而不是执行者。动作执行者并未出现。这种句子结构上为主动句,而含义上是被动句。这一类型被动句在汉语中大量存在,英译时一般也要用被动语态来处理。例如:
   (1)现在已经了解到每一特殊种类毕竟不是由单一的细胞类型合成。
   It is now known that each particular class is not,after all,made bya single cell type.
   (2)非典的病因还需要澄清。
   The etiology of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome(SARS)hasyet tO be clarified.
   (3)这个问题正在研究。
   The problem is now being studied.
   不付,汉语中这种类型的句子,同样不是绝对必须用英语被动式来处理的。类似(3)的句子,如“……正在考虑”、“……正在研究”等说法,还可用另一种译法,即be under examination/consideration。所以(3)也可译作:The problem is now under consideration.至于(2)中的“需要……”,也可改用need来译,全句可译为:了he etiology of Scvcre AcuteRespiratory Syndrome(SARS)still needs clarifying.
   (二)关千汉语主动句的英译问题
   汉语多采用主动语态,但在英译时有时改用被动语态。语态的变换基于多种原因,概括起来说,主要有以下几种。
   1.为了强调接受动作的人或事物的重要性
   英语里常常运用被动结构把动作的承受者作为句子的主语,来突出其地位,强调其重要性。由于这个原因,汉译英时,往往将汉语的主动句变换为英语的被动句,把原文的宾语变成译文的主语。例如:
   (1)把实验的动物随机分成两组。
   7he experimental animals were randomly divided into two groups.    (2)古时称方剂的组成结构为“君、臣、佐、使”。
   Four parts of a formula were called“monarch,ministcr,adj uvantand dispatcher”in ancient timc.
   (3)已经知道丙型肝炎和丁型肝炎病毒很多年,但直到1988年才将它们分离出来。
   The HCV and HDV were known for many years,but n。t is。lateduntil 1988.
   (4)直到20世纪30年代才有了真正有效的治疗感染的药物,那时研制出了碘胺。
   No truly effective agents for the therapy of infections were availableuntil the 1930s,when sulfonamides were developed.
   以上各句中,汉语的宾语,即动作的承受者“动物”、“方剂的组成结构”、“丙型肝炎和丁型肝炎病毒”等,由于翻译时换用了被动语态,在译文中都处于主语的位置,因而也就强调了它们的重要性。
   2.为了加强上下文的连贯性
   英语中,常常为了上下文的连贯,使句子之间的衔接紧密自然而运用被动结构。为此目的,在汉译英吋也常常将汉语的主动句改译为英语的被动句。请看以下例句:
   (1)《英汉实用中医药大全》一问世,读者就非常欢迎。
   The English-Chinese Encyclopedia of Practical Traditional Chi-nese  Medicine has been warmly welcomed by the readers when it cameinto the world.
   (2)去年4月这个学会举行了中国中西医结合学会精神疾病专业委员会会议。
   The meeting of the Psychiatry Committee of the Association of theIntegrated Traditional and Western Medicine was held under the auspicesof Chinese Association last April.
   3.为了使措词得当、语气委婉 
   英语常出于礼貌上的考虑,不说出主事者,尤其是第一人称,因而采用被动语态。汉译英时也往往将汉语的主动语态转译成英语的被动语态,多见于讲话、通知、请帖等。例如:
   (1)今天邀请大家来开中西医结合讨论会,目的是要和大家交换意见,研究中西医工作的关系。
 You have been invited to this forum on the integrated Traditionaland Western Medicine today to exchange ideas and examine the relation-ship between work in Traditional and Western Medicine.
   (1)请委员会的全体委员于星期三下午二时在会议室集合,听报告。
   All members of the committee are requested to meet in the confer-ence room at 2:00 pm on Wednesday to attend a lecture.
   (3)他们广泛散发宣传材料,指导非典的预防,把人们在医护处所、家庭、旅途以及其他场合下的危险降至最低。
   Multiple notices have been issued,providing guidance on ways tOminimize the risk by curbing the spread of SARS in health-care facilities,in the household,when traveling’and in other settings.
   (三)关于汉语的一些习惯用语的译法
   汉语中有许多习惯用语。其中有的是用“人们”、“有人”、“大家’’等作主语;有的看来是无主句;有的则是句子里的独立结构,如“据悉”、“应该说”、“必须指出”、“已经证明”,等等。汉语中的这类习惯用语,从语态上来说是主动语态;但英译时通常都用被动语态,在表达方式上,则可充分利用英语中以it作形式主语的句型。例如:
   (1)很明显,这项计划应该取消。
   It is obvious that the plan should be scrapped.
   (2)从现有的出土文物中可以看到,周代已经广泛地将药物配合成方剂,煎成汤液用以治病了。
   According to some recent unearthed relics’  it Can be found that inthe Zhou Dynasty decoctions of combined herbs ware CXtensivelV used fordiseases.
   (3)应该说,情况基本上是好的。
   It should be said that the situation is basicallV sound.
   现将这类习惯用语及其常见译法归纳如下:
   本项研究旨在……    This study was desiigned to…
   目前研究旨在……    Thc present study was undertaken to…
   所报道的研究旨在……    The study reported here was undertaken    to…
   本项回顾性研究旨在……    A retrospective study was undertaken    to…
 本项前瞻性双盲研究旨在……A double-blind prosPcctive investigati。n    was undertaken to…
   本项前瞻性研究旨在……    A prospectivc review was undertaken    to…
   本项研究试图……    In this study,an attempt was made    to…
 本项研究试图……    Attempts wcre made to…
 本项研究结果提示……    Our resuIts suCQest that…作者认为……    The authors suggest that…本文提示……    This paper suggests that…本报道提示……    This report suggests that…所获数据表明……    The data obtained suggests that…这些观察表明……    These observations suggest that…分析表明……    This analysis suggests that…总之我们认为……    In conclusion,we suggest that…这表明……    It is suggested that…我们认为……    We conclude that…结论认为……    It is concluded that…结论表明……    The results show…数据表明……    The data show…这些研究表明……    This study indicates that…这些发现表明……    These findings indicate that…这一病例表明……    This case illustrates that…这证明……    It is illustrated that…这些结果表明……    These results demonstrate that…这一研究证明……    This study confirms that…本资料未能证实……    Data fails to confirm…我们觉得……    We feel that…作者以为……    The authors feel that…我们相信……    We believe that…根据经验,作者以为……。n the basis of the authors'experience,    they believe that…我们以为……    We consider…这一病例说明……    Ths case points out…作者因此认为……    The authors therefore propose that…
   It is proposed that…我们建议…    We recommended that…(be)…
   It is recommended that…(be)…
 这些结果证明……    These results support…
 据认为……    It is thought that…
 我们怀疑……    It is suspected that…
 我认为……    In my opinion…
 我们认为……    Our opinion is that…  作者认为……    The authors are of the opinion that…
   To the authors,knowledge…
 根据我们的经验……    In our experience…
 人们(有人,大家)认为……  It is considered(thought)that…
 普遍(一般,通常)认为……  It is generally(usually)accepted    (agreed,recognized)that…
 有人(人们,大家)相信……It is believed that…  
 大家知道(众所周知)……    It is well-known that…
 据说(有人说)……    It is said that…
 据悉……    It is learned that…
 据推测……    It is supposed that…
 据估计(预计)……    It estimated(predicted,calculated)    that.
 据报道(告)……    It is reported that…
 必须指出……    It must be pointed out that…
 必须(应该)承认……    It must(should)be admitted that…
 可见(可以看出)……    It will be seen that…
 由此可见……    It will be seen from this that…
 不用说(谁都知道)……    It is understood that…
 无可否认……    It cannot be denied that…
 已经证明……    It has been proved(demonstrated)    that…
 可以肯定……    It may be confirmed that…
 人们有时会问……    It is sometimes asked that…
 人们希望……    It is expected(hoped)that…
   近年,国内外论文常用人称中第一、第二人称的使用频率正在上升,越来越多的入主张文章要亲切、自然、直截了当,应该多用第一、第二人称。有些期刊的投稿须知中明确指出选用主动语态要多于被动语态,凡是用第一人称单数形式合适的地方就不要用第二人称单数形式。第一人称代表自己,用you来称呼读者,避免使用矫揉造作的It is…,It is believed that…,It is suggested…等等。第四节  无主句的译法其主语到底是谁,是什么,往往很难断定;但是在任何语言环境里它都句子一般都要有主语,没有主语是例外。因此,汉语的无主句译成英语汉语无主句的英译法大致有以下几种。
   (一)运用英语的被动句
   这就是说,汉语中有一种以主动结构表示被动意义,英语要用被动结构。例如:
   (1)献血中心大楼将提前竣工。The building of the Blood Donor Centre will be completed aheaa of tvme.(2)这儿要修建一个康复中心。A center of health recovery will be built here.(3)这个研究室实际上还没有进行过科学实验。 
   Practicallv nO scientific expet iments have yet been made on thisstudy.
   2.某些表示要求、规定的无主句.也往往可以译成被动句
   (1)必须保证8小时睡眠。
   Eight hours’sleep must be guaranteed.
   (2)发抖称恶寒战栗。
   Trembling is usuall yeferred to as aversion to cold with shivering.
   (3)发现了误诊,一定要改正。
   Erroneous diagnose must be righted when they are discovered.
   (二)译为存在句,采用“There+be…”等结构
   汉语中的无主句,翻译时一般都采用这类结构。如:
   (1)在初始接触致癌物到长出肿瘤之间通常有很长一段时间。
   7herC iS usually an eXtended period of time between the initial expo-sure to a carcinogen and the appearance of a neoplasm.
   (2)同时由于呼气时细支气管容易萎陷,因而也阻塞气体从肺部流出。
   There is also obstruCtion t0 the flow of air out of the lungs,  aS thebronchioles tend to collapse during the act of expiration.
   (3)经常把它称作大叶性肺炎,因为它常以一叶肺或一肺段的方式扩散到全肺。
   It is oftcn referred to as lobar pneumonia because it frequentlyspreads in a lobar。or segmented manner throughout the lung.
   (三)选用适当的名词或代词补出主语
   汉语无主句的英译,除上述几种方法外,还可以根据上下文选用适当的名词或代词(包括人称代词和否定代词)补出主语,构成一个完整的句子。例如:
 (1)不努力便不会成功。One Can neVer suCCeed without making great efforts.
 (2)弄得不好,就会前功尽弃。
 If things are not properly handled’our labour will be totally lost.
 (四)译为复合结构
 (1)应该注意采取有效措施防止医院感染。
 Attention should be paid to the effective measures to prevent beinginfected within the hospital.
   (2)要努力将人口控制在14亿以下,制止环境污染,显著改善环境。
   we shc,uld strive to control the population under 1.4 billion,curbthe deterioration of the environment and noticeably improve it.
   (3)应该继续努力防止污染,控制污染,保护生态环境。
   We should continue our efforts to prevent and control pollution andprotect the ecological environment.
   在处理一个无主句时,可以译为被动句、复合句(即多字动词+名词十介词)、存在句、祈使句,但究竟该用哪种方法,一方面要取决于句子本身的结构,另一方面还要看上下文,因文制宜,灵活掌握。同一个句子,用于不同的上下文,其处理方法往往也不相同。第五节  连动式和兼语式的译法
   汉语的特点之一,就是有些句子往往连用两个或更多的动词,中间不用任何关联词语。英语则不然。所以,汉译英吋经常会遇到如何处:理谓语中几个动词连用的问题。
   汉语中两个或两个以上的动词连用,构成复杂谓语。复杂谓语有两种类型:连动式和兼语式.下面分别介绍这两类复杂谓语的英译方法。
 

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